The term "skyscraper" was coined in the 1880s, shortly after the first tall buildings were constructed in the United States -- but the history of tall buildings dates back hundreds of years. Since the Middle Ages, engineers have engaged in a battle for the sky.
Before there were skyscrapers, there were towers.
Made of heavy stone, towers had thick, sturdy walls, but the rooms were dark and cramped -- too many windows would have weakened the structure
Soon Gothic cathedrals joined the quest for height.
Long, stone arms, called flying buttresses, supported the cathedral's heavy weight, allowing the walls to be filled with colorful glass windows.
With steel came the first modern skyscrapers.
During the Industrial Revolution, engineers began experimenting with two new materials -- iron and steel. The 10-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago was the first tall building to be supported by a steel skeleton of vertical columns and horizontal beams. But even with windows, the closely spaced columns and deep beams made rooms in the Home Insurance Building feel tight and cramped.
Early elevator
Who wants to climb all those stairs?
In 1857, the installation of the first passenger elevator in the Haughwout Department Store in New York City made it possible and practical to construct buildings more than four or five stories tall
New structural designs made skyscrapers even lighter and stiffer.
As skyscrapers grew taller and taller, engineers were faced with a new enemy: wind. Today's tallest skyscrapers, which are almost 1,500 feet tall, must be 50 times stronger against wind than the typical 200-foot buildings of the 1940s.
Today, the sky's the limit!
As architects and engineers experiment with new styles and building methods, taller and more innovative structures are springing up around the world. The tallest buildings in the world, the Petronas Towers in Malaysia, are connected by a flexible skybridge on the 42nd floor -- a design that improves the circulation of people between the towers and provides an escape route from one tower to the other in case of emergency.
The desire to build big is nothing new. Big buildings have been used to show off power and wealth; to honor leaders or religious beliefs; to stretch the limits of what's possible; and even as simple competition among owners, families, architects, and builders. Some of the most dramatic buildings of the past include the pyramids in Egypt, the skinny towers stretching towards the sky in Italian hill towns, and the gothic cathedrals of France. While these types of buildings may look very different from each other, they all have one thing in common. They were built with masonry or stone walls supporting most of the weight (so-called load-bearing walls), including that of the floors, the people, and everything the rooms contained. Because of this, the height of these buildings was limited by how massive and heavy they had to be at the base.
Removing the Obstacles
Two developments in the 19th century paved the way for a whole new type of building: the skyscraper. The first was the development of a safe elevator. Primitive elevators of various designs had been used for centuries, and starting in the mid 19th century, steam-operated elevators were used to move materials in factories, mines, and warehouses. But these elevators were not considered safe for people; if the cable broke, they would plummet to the bottom of the elevator shaft. Then in 1853, an American inventor named Elisha Graves Otis developed a safety device that kept elevators from falling if a cable should break. This new development had an enormous impact on public confidence. And later in the century, the switch to an electric motor made the elevator a practical solution to the problem of getting up and down tall buildings.
The second development took place in Chicago. In 1871, Chicago suffered a devastating fire. In the years that followed, however, instead of recovering slowly, the city experienced explosive growth, and it quickly began to strain against its natural boundaries. By the 1880s, the available land for new buildings in this area could not keep up with demand; the only alternative was to build up. But in order to achieve the desired height, construction techniques had to change. A new method of building was developed that used a grid of steel beams and columns that were strong enough to support any stresses or forces a building might experience, including both the weight of the floor and the building contents, as well as the force of wind or even, in some areas, earthquakes. And with this new building method, the skyscraper was born and the race for the tallest building began.
Modern Materials
Since the birth of the skyscraper, builders and engineers have continuously looked for ways to improve building methods and materials, in order to make structures stronger, taller, and lighter. Skyscrapers are built to last, so they must be made of materials that are strong; durable; resistant to the sun, wind, rain, frost, and snow; and affordable. Concrete is one of the most common materials, beyond the steel supports, because it is enormously versatile. Its composition can be changed depending on the needs of the building. It can be reinforced to make it stiffer and stronger by setting steel mesh or bars into the concrete. And additives can make it set or harden faster or slower depending on the needs of the design.
Another very important material is glass. Because the steel skeleton now supports the main loads of the building, the outer skin only serves to keep the weather out and let light in, the more light the better. So glass walls became very popular beginning after World War II, because they are weatherproof while providing ample natural light, and also because they are so much lighter-and cheaper-than masonry or concrete.
The Forces of Nature
But as buildings became taller and lighter, particularly the modern glass boxes that are so popular, skyscrapers began having trouble with the wind and they began to sway, some more than two feet in any direction! Engineers came up with new solutions for this problem, first installing diagonally braced steel trusses between central elevator shafts to create a stronger core, and then moving most of the beams and columns to the outside edge of the walls in order to make a stiff tube. A more unusual solution was devised to control sway in the 1970s called a tuned mass damper. This is a giant concrete block or weight, mounted with springs and shock absorbers on a lubricated plate, designed like a pendulum to move in one direction when a computer senses the structure has begun to move in the other, in order to counterbalance the motion
Building Badly
Of course, with new technological developments, problems can occur. One dramatic and very visible example was the John Hancock Tower in Boston, now considered the city's most spectacular building. The structure is a tower of mirrored glass. But almost from the beginning, the glass panes failed. The problem started during a winter gale in January 1973 while the tower was still under construction, when huge panels of glass, each weighing 500 pounds, shattered and fell to the street below.
The streets and sidewalks were roped off as engineers tried to figure out what was going wrong. By April at least 65 panels had fallen and been replaced by plywood. Theories and rumors persisted, including that the tower was swaying too much, causing the windows to pop out, or that the tower's foundation was settling so significantly that it broke the windows. The truth was that the material itself failed. The window units had been manufactured using a fairly new process and the design was fatally flawed. Ultimately, all 10,344 windows had to be replaced and the building has been safe ever since.
The Race for the Sky
In the early 20th century, corporations built skyscrapers for the promotional value to increase name recognition. Among the early skyscrapers in Manhattan were the Metropolitan Life Insurance Tower (700 feet, 50 stories), the Woolworth Building (the world's tallest from 1913-1930 at 792 feet, 60 stories), the Bank of Manhattan (927 feet, 71 stories), and the heavily decorated Chrysler Building (briefly the world's tallest in 1930 at 1046 feet, 77 stories). The Chrysler Building soon lost its crown to the Empire State Building, built during the Depression by a real estate developer, which reached a stunning 1,250 feet and 102 stories. The Empire State Building would reign supreme among skyscrapers for 41 years until 1972, when it was surpassed by the World Trade Center (1,368 feet, 110 stories). Two years later, New York City lost the distinction of housing the tallest building when the Sears Tower was constructed in Chicago (1450 feet, 110 stories). And twenty-four years after that, for the first time the tallest skyscraper was no longer in the United States at all, but in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, where the Petronas Towers were built in 1998 (1483 feet, 88 stories).
The tallest building so far in the 21st century is Taipei 101, built in Taiwan in 2004, which tops out at 1,670 feet and 101 stories. But another country is eager to claim the tallest title. Currently under construction in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, the Burj Dubai is expected to be completed in 2008. The exact height is top secret but is estimated to be at least 2,313 feet and 167 floors. If it reaches this height, which is close to a half mile tall, it will be tallest manmade structure of any kind in history.
The Eiffel Tower
The Eiffel Tower was the tallest building in the world when it was completed in 1889. It was built for the World's Fair to demonstrate that iron could be as strong as stone while being infinitely lighter. And in fact the wrought-iron tower is twice as tall as the masonry Washington Monument and yet it weighs 70,000 tons less! It is repainted every seven years with 50 tons of dark brown paint.
The Home Insurance Building
Called "the father of the skyscraper," the Home Insurance Building, constructed in Chicago in1885 (and demolished in 1931), was 138 feet tall and 10 stories. It was the first building to effectively employ a supporting skeleton of steel beams and columns, allowing it to have many more windows than traditional masonry structures. But this new construction method made people worry that the building would fall down, leading the city to halt construction until they could investigate the structure's safety.
The Chrysler Building
In 1929, auto tycoon Walter Chrysler took part in an intense race with the Bank of Manhattan Trust Company to build the world's tallest skyscraper. Just when it looked like the bank had captured the coveted title, workers at the Chrysler Building jacked a thin spire hidden inside the building through the top of the roof to win the contest (subsequently losing the title four months later to the Empire State Building). Chrysler also decorated his building to mirror his cars, with hubcaps, mudguards, and hood ornaments.
The Empire State Building
The Empire State Building is designed to be a lightning rod. In fact, it is struck by lightning about 100 times each year!
Citicorp Center
New York's Citicorp Center (915 feet tall, 59 stories, built in 1977) was the first U.S. skyscraper to contain a tuned mass damper in order to control the building's sway. The structure was also the site of a near catastrophe. During construction, instead of welding joints as originally specified, builders bolted them. A year after completion, with hurricane season fast approaching, the building's chief engineer discovered the change and realized the joints would be too weak to withstand hurricane-force winds, potentially leading to the building's collapse in a dense urban neighborhood. To correct the problem, a team of workers was hired to weld two-inch-thick steel plates over each of the 200 bolted joints. Six weeks into the three-month repair job, Hurricane Ella was off the coast of North Carolina, headed for New York. Luckily, just hours before New York City was to face emergency evacuation, the hurricane veered out to sea. This crisis was kept secret from the public for almost 20 years.
The Petronas Towers
In the Petronas Towers, the shape of the floors is based on an eight-point star, common in Malaysian Islamic patterns. The towers have so many windows that window washers take a month to clean each tower! You can get an up-close look at the building in the movie Entrapment, starring Catherine Zeta-Jones and Sean Connery.
John Hancock Center
In order to strengthen the John Hancock Center against Chicago's famous winds, engineers included five enormous diagonal braces on the exterior walls of the building. These diagonals block the view from two windows on each floor. A clever rental agent, however, has made these sightless windows a status symbol and it actually costs more money to rent these rooms!
First Interstate World Center
First Interstate World Center (Library Tower) in Los Angeles is located just 26 miles from the San Andreas Fault and has been designed to withstand an earthquake of 8.3 or more on the Richter scale, with a massively reinforced central core and lighter columns around the perimeter. This design makes it flexible, so it can resist vigorous side-to-side shaking without snapping, yet stiff, so it can withstand the force of the wind.
The Sears Tower
On a clear day, you can see four states from the top of Chicago's Sears Tower: Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Michigan. To make sure your view is clear, the building features six robotic window-washing machines mounted on the roof.
World's Tallest Buildings
Rank m ft
1. Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 508 1,667
2. Petronas Tower 1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452 1,483
3. Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452 1,483
4. Sears Tower, Chicago 1974 110 442 1,451
5. Jin Mao Building, Shanghai 1999 88 421 1,381
6. Two International Finance Centre, Hong Kong 2003 88 415 1,362
7. CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou, China 1996 80 391 1,283
8. Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China 1996 69 384 1,260
9. Empire State Building, New York 1931 102 381 1,250
10. Central Plaza, Hong Kong 1992 78 374 1,227
11. Bank of China, Hong Kong 1989 70 367 1,205
12. Emirates Tower One, Dubai 1999 54 355 1,165
13. Tuntex Sky Tower, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 1997 85 348 1,140
14. Aon Centre, Chicago 1973 80 346 1,136
15. The Center, Hong Kong 1998 73 346 1,135
16. John Hancock Center, Chicago 1969 100 344 1,127
17. Rose Tower, Dubai 2007 72 333 1,093
18. Shimao International Plaza, Shanghai 2006 60 333 1,093
19. Minsheng Bank Building, Wuhan, China UC07 68 331 1,087
20. Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang, N. Korea 1995 105 330 1,083
21. Q1, Gold Coast, Australia 2005 78 323 1,058
22. Burj al Arab Hotel, Dubai 1999 60 321 1,053
23. Nina Tower I, Hong Kong 2006 80 319 1,046
24. Chrysler Building, New York 1930 77 319 1,046
25. New York Times Building, New York 2007 52 319 1,046
26. Bank of America Plaza, Atlanta 1993 55 317 1,039
27. U.S. Bank Tower, Los Angeles 1990 73 310 1,018
28. Menara Telekom Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1999 55 310 1,017
29. Emirates Tower Two, Dubai 2000 56 309 1,014
30. AT&T Corporate Center, Chicago 1989 60 307 1,007
31. JP Morgan Chase Tower, Houston 1982 75 305 1,002
32. Baiyoke Tower II, Bangkok 1997 85 304 997
33. Two Prudential Plaza, Chicago 1990 64 303 995
34. Wells Fargo Plaza, Houston 1983 71 302 992
35. Kingdom Centre, Riyadh 2002 41 302 992
36. Aspire Tower, Doha 2006 36 300 984
37. First Canadian Place, Toronto 1975 72 298 978
38. Eureka Tower, Melbourne 2006 91 297 975
39. Landmark Tower, Yokohama, Japan 1993 70 296 971
40. 311 South Wacker Drive, Chicago 1990 65 293 961
41. SEG Plaza, Shenzhen, China 2000 71 292 957
42. American International Building, New York 1932 67 290 952
43. Key Tower, Cleveland 1991 57 289 947
44. Plaza 66, Shanghai 2001 66 288 945
45. One Liberty Place, Philadelphia 1987 61 288 945
46. Millennium Tower, Dubai 2006 59 285 935
47. Sunjoy Tomorrow Square, Shanghai 2003 55 285 934
48. Columbia Center, Seattle 1984 76 284 933
49. Cheung Kong Center, Hong Kong 1999 63 283 929
50. Chongqing World Trade Center, Chongqing, China 2005 60 283 929
51. The Trump Building, New York 1930 71 283 927
52. Bank of America Plaza, Dallas 1985 72 281 921
53. United Overseas Bank Plaza, Singapore 1992 66 280 919
54. Republic Plaza, Singapore 1995 66 280 919
55. Overseas Union Bank Centre, Singapore 1986 63 280 919
56. Citigroup Center, New York 1977 59 279 915
57. Hong Kong New World Tower, Shanghai 2002 61 278 913
58. Diwang International Commerce Center, Nanning, China 2006 54 276 906
59. Scotia Plaza, Toronto 1989 68 275 902
60. Williams Tower, Houston 1983 64 275 901
61. Wuhan World Trade Tower, Wuhan, China 1998 60 273 896
62. Cullinan North Tower, Hong Kong UC07 68 270 886
63. Cullinan South Tower, Hong Kong UC07 68 270 886
64. Renaissance Tower, Dallas 1975 56 270 886
65. China International Center Tower B, Guangzhou, China UC07 62 270 884
66. Dapeng International Plaza, Guangzhou, China 2006 56 269 883
67. 21st Century Tower, Dubai 2003 55 269 883
68. Al Faisaliah Center, Riyadh 2000 30 267 876
69. 900 North Michigan Ave., Chicago 1989 66 265 871
70. Bank of America Corporate Center, Charlotte 1992 60 265 871
71. SunTrust Plaza, Atlanta 1992 60 265 871
72. BOCOM Financial Towers, Shanghai 1999 52 265 869
73. Triumph Palace, Moscow 2005 57 264 866
74. Bluescope Steel Centre, Melbourne 1991 52 264 866
75. Shenzhen Special Zone Daily Tower, Shenzhen, China 1998 42 264 866
76. Tower Palace Three, Tower G, Seoul 2004 73 264 865
77. Trump World Tower, New York 2001 72 262 861
78. Water Tower Place, Chicago 1976 74 262 859
79. Grand Gateway Plaza I, Shanghai 2005 52 262 859
80. Grand Gateway Plaza II, Shanghai 2005 52 262 859
81. Aon Center, Los Angeles 1974 62 262 858
82. Hotel Panorama, Hong Kong UC07 64 261 856
83. BCE Place–Canada Trust Tower, Toronto 1990 53 261 856
84. Post & Telecommunication Hub, Guangzhou, China 2002 66 260 853
85. Dual Towers 1, Manama, Bahrain 2006 57 260 853
86. Dual Towers 2, Manama, Bahrain 2006 57 260 853
87. 101 Collins Street, Melbourne 1991 50 260 853
88. Transamerica Pyramid, San Francisco 1972 48 260 853
89. G.E. Building, New York 1933 70 259 850
90. Chase Tower, Chicago 1969 60 259 850
91. Commerzbank Zentrale, Frankfurt 1997 56 259 850
92. Two Liberty Place, Philadelphia 1990 58 258 848
93. Philippine Bank of Communications, Makati 2000 55 258 848
94. Park Tower, Chicago 2000 67 257 844
95. Messeturm, Frankfurt 1990 64 257 843
96. Sorrento 1, Hong Kong 2003 75 256 841
97. U.S. Steel Tower, Pittsburgh 1970 64 256 841
98. Mokdong Hyperion Tower A, Seoul 2003 69 256 840
99. Rinku Gate Tower, Izumisano, Japan 1996 56 256 840
100. Langham Place Office Tower, Hong Kong 2004 59 255 837
NOTE: When a building is “topped out” (the point of construction when the structure has met its proposed structural top), the building is officially ranked and is placed on the list. UC indicates under construction: although the building has been “topped out,” construction has not been completed. Height is measured from sidewalk level of main entrance to structural top of building. This includes spires, but does not include antennas or flagpoles.
1. World Trade Center twin towers of New York City ranked fifth and sixth (at 1,368 ft and 1,362 ft) on this list until their destruction on Sept. 11, 2001.
2. A building differs from a tower in that the former is considered to be a structure that is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing purposes. Also, an essential characteristic of a building is that it has floors
NOTES:
Criteria for Inclusion on the List of 100 Tallest Buildings by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
This data was gathered and/or supplied by members and representatives of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat who represent world leaders in the field of the built environment, including research, industry, and education.
What defines a building (as opposed to a tower)? A “building” is considered to be a structure that is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing purposes. An essential characteristic of a building is that it has floors. Note that towers are NOT included in the list. Although a number of tall buildings on this list have “Tower” in their name—the famous Petronas Towers, for example—none are technically towers.
When does a building appear on the list? When a building is “topped out”—the point of construction when the structure has met its proposed structural top (see height definition below)—the building is officially ranked and is placed on the list.
Height The height of a building is measured from the sidewalk level of the main entrance to the structural top of the building. This includes spires, but does not include television antennas, radio antennas, or flag poles. Height is listed in both meters and feet and is rounded to the nearest integer. This is the official criterion used by the Council in determining ranking.
In many cases, the height of a building is supplied to the Council using only one unit of measure (either feet or meters). Based on the exact value of the unit supplied, the other unit’s value is mathematically calculated, then rounded to the nearest integer. The final determinant in ranking a building’s height is the footage—not meters—because of footage’s smaller (and therefore more precise) incremental value.
Rank Ranking is determined by height to the structural top of the building (see above). If there is a tie, the building with the larger number of stories is ranked higher. If a tie still remains, the building which was completed first is ranked higher. If a tie would still remain, the buildings would be ranked alphabetically.
Year The year in which construction of the building was officially completed. “UC” stands for Under Construction. For a building that is currently under construction to appear on the list it must be “topped out.”
World's Tallest Towers
Tower, city Year Height
(m) Height
(ft)
Canadian National (CN) Tower,
Toronto 1975 553 1,815
Ostankino Tower,
Moscow 1967 537 1,762
Oriental Pearl Tower,
Shanghai 1995 468 1,535
Milad Tower,
Tehran 2005 435 1,427
Menara Kuala Lumpur,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1996 421 1,403
Tianjin TV Tower,
Tianjin, China 1991 415 1,362
Central Radio & TV Tower,
Beijing 1992 405 1,329
Kiev TV Tower,
Kiev, Ukraine 1973 385 1,263
Tashkent Tower,
Tashkent, Uzbekistan 1985 375 1,230
Liberation Tower,
Kuwait City 1996 372 1,221
Alma-Ata Tower,
Almaty, Kazakhstan 1983 371 1,217
Riga TV Tower,
R iga, Latvia 1987 368 1,209
Fernsehturm Tower,
Berlin, Germany 1969 368 1,207
Stratosphere Tower,
Las Vegas, United States 1996 350 1,149
Macau Tower,
Macau, China 2001 338 1,109
NOTES: Height is from top to bottom, antennas included. A tower differs from a building in that the latter has floors, and is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing use. The structures listed here are principally telecommunications towers, and while they may have observation decks or restaurants, they do not have floors all the way up. Towers and buildings are freestanding structures; this list does not include masts supported by guy wires. The tallest mast currently standing is the KVLY-TV Mast in North Dakota, built in 1963; it is 629 m (2,063 ft) tall. The tallest mast of all time was the Warszawa Radio Mast near Konstantynów, Poland, built in 1974; it was 646 m (2,120 ft) tall before collapsing during renovation work in 1991. (Note that the name of a building or mast may include the word “tower,” but that does not affect its status.) This list also does not include the Petronius Platform, built in 2000 in the Gulf of Mexico, which is 610 m (2,001 ft) tall without its spire, or 640 m (2,100 ft) with it. While it is the world's tallest freestanding structure, 535 m (1,754 ft) of it is underwater and it is partly supported by buoyancy
DEATHS SINCE WORLD WAR II
Since WWII, USA has promoted, financed and participating in over 20 separate wars, killing over 8,000,000 people.
- 1952-79, 70,000 Iranians killed. (Ayatollah Khomeini, US public enemy for the 1980s, was on the CIA payroll while in exile in Paris in 1970s, as were Saddam Hussein and Osama bin Laden at different times and in different places.)
- 1954, 120,000 Guatemalans killed
- 1954-1975, 4,000,000 Vietnamese and Cambodians killed.
- 1965, 3,000 Dominican Republicans killed
- 1965, 800,000 Indonesians killed
- 1973, 30,000 Chileans killed
- 1975, 250,000 East Timorese killed
- 1970s, 1,000,000 Angolans killed
- 1984, 30,000 Nicaraguans killed
- 1980s, 80,000 El Salvadoreans killed
- 1989, 8,000 Panamanians killed in an attempt to capture George H. Bush's CIA partner now turned enemy, Manuel Noriega,
- 1980s, over 700,000 Libyans, Grenadians, Somalians, Haitians, Afghanistanis, Sudanese, Brazilians, Argentineans and Yugoslavians killed,
- 1991, over 1,000,000 Iraqis killed, including over 500,000 children about which Madeline Albright (then, Secretary of State) said "their deaths are worth the cost". While George W. Bush owns over 80% of the oil wells in Kuwait, trouble will continue there.
GOOD GUYS, BAD GUYS
Confused? Having difficulty telling the good guys from the bad guys? Use
this handy Guide to differences between Terrorists and the U.S. Government
TERRORISTS: Supposed leader is the spoiled son of a powerful politician,
from extremely wealthy oil family
US GOVERNMENT: Supposed leader is the spoiled son of a powerful politician,
from extremely wealthy oil family
TERRORISTS: Leader has declared a holy war ('Jihad') against his enemies';
believes any nation not with him is against him; believes god is on his
side, and that any means are justified
US GOVERNMENT: Leader has declared a holy war ('Crusade') against his
'enemies'; believes any nation not with him is against him; believes god is
on his side, and that any means are justified
TERRORISTS: Supported by extreme fundamentalist religious leaders who
preach hatred, intolerance, subjugation of women, and persecution of
non-believers
US GOVERNMENT: Supported by extreme fundamentalist religious leaders who
preach hatred, intolerance, subjugation of women, and persecution of
non-believers
TERRORISTS: Leadership was not elected by a majority of the people in a
free and fair democratic election
US GOVERNMENT: Leadership was not elected by a majority of the people in a
free and fair democratic election
TERRORISTS: Kills thousands of innocent civilians, some of them children,
in cold blooded bombings
US GOVERNMENT: Kills (tens of) thousands of innocent civilians, some of
them children, in cold blooded bombings
TERRORISTS: Operates through clandestine organization (al Qaeda) with
agents in many countries; uses bombing, assassination, other terrorist
tactics
US GOVERNMENT: Operates through clandestine organization (CIA) with agents
in many countries; uses bombing, assassination, other terrorist tactics
TERRORISTS: Using war as pretext to clamp down on dissent and undermine
civil liberties
US GOVERNMENT: Using war as pretext to clamp down on dissent and undermine
civil liberties
TERRORISTS: Weapon of choice: a three-dollar box cutter
US GOVERNMENT: Weapon of choice: a billion-dollar B1 bomber
